Broadly speaking there are six phases of its development:

First Phase—1887-1926:

Also, the public administration carries a greater social prestige than the private administration because of its social role. (7) Legal Framework: Public administration has to function within the legal framework, i.e. Within the limits set by the laws, rules & regulations. This makes public administration rigid in its operation. Download New Horizon of Public Administration by Mohit Bhattacharya. About Us We believe everything in the internet must be free. So this tool was designed for free download documents from the internet.

Prof. Woodrow Wilson is said to be the father of discipline. In his article entitled “The Study of Administration (1887)”, he emphasized the need for a separate study of Public Administration as a distinct from Political Science. He thus initiated Politics-Administration dichotomy which dominated the scene for quite some time.

Public Administration was held on May 7-9, 2013 at Higher Education Commission, Regional Centre, Lahore. The purpose of the meeting was to finalize the curriculum of Public Administration reviewed by NCRC in its preliminary meeting held on December 19-21, 2012 at the same venue. The following participants attended the meeting: 1. Public administration and then compare them on three fundamental questions that every theory of public administration must answer: 1) what shall be done, i.e. Policy direction; 2) who shall do it, i.e. Personnel management; and 3) how to enforce compliance, i.

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In 1900 Good now published his work ‘Politics of Administration’ in which he developed this idea further. He said that Politics has to be concerned with the laying down of the policies which administration has to execute.

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In 1914 American Political Science Association published a report recognizing Public Administration as an important sub-area of Political Science.

In 1926, L.D. White wrote the first text book on the subject by, ‘Introduction to the Study of Public Administration.’ It stressed the point that politics and administration are two different activities and the latter has to emphasize efficiency and economy in executing policies.

Second Phase—1927-1937:

The dominant theme of the period was principles of Public Administration. The main belief was that there are certain principles of administration and the main thrust was to try to discover them and apply them.

In 1927, W.F. Willoughby wrote ‘Principle of Administration’ followed by a number of publications, e.g. H. Fayol’s ‘Industrial and General Management’; Mooney and Reiley’s ‘Principles of Organisation’, Mary Parker Foulet’s ‘Creative Experience’, Gullick and Urwick published ‘Papers on Science and Administration’ (1937), they coined the acronym POSDCORB.

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Scientific management to efficiently manage the business of administration was emphasized. Politics as practiced by politicians became irrelevant structure and process of organisation was put to rigorous analysis.

This period is called the Golden Age of Principles and in this period Public administration achieved high degree of respectability. Its products were in great demand.

Third Phase—1938-1947:

The universality of the principles of administration was soon challenged. It was a period of continuous and mounting challenge and questioning.

Chester I. Bernard in his ‘The Functions of the Executive’ (1938) did not uphold the stand taken by earlier writers.

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Herbert Simon ‘The Proverbs of (article) Administration’ (1946) ⁴Administration Behaviour’ (1947) held that there is no such thing as principles of administration, what have been taken as to be such principles are in fact Proverbs of administration.

In 1947 Robert Dahl also challenged the proposition that Public administration is a science on following grounds:

(a) Science is value-free, but administration cannot be so

(b) Human personalities differ

(c) Social framework differ

Fourth Phase—1947-1970:

This period had been one of crises for the public administration. The brave new world promised by the thinkers of the ‘Principles’ era stood shattered and future appeared to be little uncertain. The rise of new nations added to the problem.

Many scholars wanted to return to the fold of the mother science viz., Political Science but found that there was domination of Political Science over Administration.

They also felt that the political science not only discouraged the appearance of the Public administration as a separate discipline but did not encourage the growth and development of the discipline within its own fold.

Public Administration however enhanced its relation with other disciplines and outcome was Comparative Public Administration—1952 Development Public Administration—1953

Fifth Phase—1970-1990:

The scientific or logical positivist approaches robbed public administration of its goal making, welfare and social justice available to the man, woman, children in the course of achieving overall socio-economic development.

Outcome was Minnow brook conference in 1968 and the birth of New Public Administration. It was also thought that the generation gap between the practitioners of the Public Administration was also creating a lag.

The term New Public Administration gained greater currency with two publications in 1971, namely.

i. “Towards a New Public Administration : Minnowbrook Perspective” edited by Frank Marini (1971)

ii. “Public Administration in a time of Turbulence” edited by Duright Waldo (1971) However, the seeds of these publications can be located in

1. The Honey Report of Higher Education for Public Service 1967.

2. The Conference on the Theory and Practice of Public Administration 1967

Chief Features of the New Public Administration:

The chief characteristics of New Public Administration are

1. Relevance:

There had been renewed emphasis on being sensitive to the societal problems. The scholars were of the opinion that Public Administration cannot be instrumental in vacuum. Instead it should actively engage itself in the problem confronting society.

2. Values:

New Public Administration brought values back into the realm of Public Administration. It emphasized on achieving right things in the right way through right techniques.

3. Equity:

The performance of public administration was to be judged not in terms of growth but it had to be sensitive to the aspect of equity. It had to see that no one was left behind in the affairs tackled by administration.

4. Change:

As opposed to status quo, the new Public Administration emphasized change. It included reorientation of policy issues and decisions, affecting citizens.

The concept of cutback management was ushered with emphasis on terminating unneeded or ineffective organisation.

An active and participative citizenry is recognized as the benchmark for effective public Administration.

George Frederickson in ‘New Public Administration’, 1980 points out “organizations function fundamentally in the realm of values”, The New Public Administration was concerned with client ‘needs as expectations’ as well as assessment of impact of program’s effects. This required involvement of values in the policy making process.

Freedom and individual dignity were to be protected through administration.

Sixth Phase—1991-Till Today:

However the so called NPA movement, which had triggered hopes and aspirations of the Negroes and feminists in America, proved to be monstrously unsuccessful in catering to the expectations of the socially deprived class.

At the Boston Annual Conference (1987) of the American Society of Public Administration, it was decided to hold Minnowbrook conference II in 1985 to facilitate a general examination of the future of Public Administration and to determine whether important discipline differences exist between people who entered Public Administration in 1960’s and those who entered in the 1980’s.

Watergate Scandal increased the already existing cyculcism towards government, and propelled the students to think in terms of ‘less of government’ moves to cut out waste corruption and control over bureaucracy was emphasized. The concept of positive state started giving way to regulatory state.

More privatization, contracting out more voluntarism, more third party government became watchwords.

In 1994 a conference of Common Association for Public Administration and Management in Canada synthesized the foundation of New Public Management.

It seeks to reorient the public administration to suit the changing dynamics brought about by liberalisation and Globalization. The theoretical formulations of New Public Management were concretized in work of J.V. Ostram “Calculus of a Concept” etc.

The study and practice of public administration has taken many strides from classical, politics, administration dichotomy to contemporary New Public Management.

Apart from certain setbacks on account of its temptations to be exclusive, it has shown results. If it is to remain relevant in the Globalized world, Public Administration needs to take cognizance of multidimensional aspect of administration.

It needs to acquaint itself with new tools to analyze the impact of culture and ethos of the society where it is instrumental. This has become more warranted in a globalized world.

INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

What is Public Administration?

• Public administration may be defined as the management of all the activities and operations of the three branches of the government at the Central, State and Local levels.

The activities and operations of the government include, among other things, policy formulation and execution; provision of various public services (education, health care, housing, welfare, etc) ; enactment and enforcement of laws; conducting diplomacy and international relations; planning, implementation and evaluation of development programmes and projects; providing defence and internal security; tax collection; administration of justice; administration of social security; financial and personnel administration.

Other definitions of Public Administration are the following:

• Public Administration is the accomplishment (pencapaian) of politically-determined objectives. ~Dimock and Dimock

• Public Administration is policy formulation (penggubalan) and policy execution. ~ James W. Fesler

• Public Administration consists of all those operations having for their purpose the fulfilment or enforcement of public policy. ~ L.D. White

• Public administration is detailed and systematic execution of public law. Every particular application of general law is an act of administration. ~ Woodrow Wilson

• Public administration is decision-making, planning the work to be done, formulating objectives and goals.. establishing and reviewing organizations, directing and supervising employees, exercising controls and other functions performed by government executives and supervisors. It is the action part of government - it is the means by which the purposes and goals of government are realised (tercapai). ~ Corson and Harris

• Public administration is centrally concerned with the organization of government policies and programmes as well as the behaviour of non-elected officials formally responsible for their conduct. ~ UN Economic and Social Council

Scope of Public Administration

The POSDCORB View of Administration

Luther Gulick and L. Urwick (1937) , two prominent social scientists, sum up the various aspects of the scope of public administration in the acronym ( perkataan yang terbentuk daripada huruf-huruf awal) POSDCORB. It contains the first letters of seven administrative activities or functions of management. POSDCORB stands for the following managerial tasks:

P - Planning : It means deciding in advance the various activities to be carried out and the methods of implementing them.

O - Organizing : It means establishing the formal structure of authority for the effective execution of the planned activities and the achievement of pre-determined objectives.

S - Staffing : It includes the entire personnel function of recruitment of suitable persons and training of staff for specific job functions.

D - Directing : It means leading the organizing by making decisions and issuing orders and instructions to the staff for guiding them in their work.

Co - Coordinating: It means interrelating the various units of the organization and work processes to achieve the purposes of the organization.

R - Reporting :It involves keeping both the superiors and subordinates informed of what is going on through inspections, reports, research and records.

B - Budgeting:It includes financial planning, accounting, auditing and control.

We could sum up thescope of public administration this way:

• The study and practice of public administration includes the activities of all the three branches of government at the central, state and local levels.

• Public administration is concerned with the study of the structures and functions of the various public organizations, the behaviour of members working in them and the various theories of organization.

• Public administration deals with the administrative processes, methods and procedures. Administrative processes such as communication, control and decision-making show the dynamic aspects of administrative agencies. The methods and procedures constitute the 'how' of administration.

• Public personnel administration is an important area in the study of public administration. This branch of public administration deals with the problems of personnel employed in public organization- such as recruitment, training, compensation, promotion, discipline, retirement, morale, motivation, employer-employee relations and so on.

• Financial administration is another major division of the study of public administration. It includes the budgetary process, accounting and auditing.

• Administrative accountability forms part of the study of public administration. Accountability in public administration is enforced by means of both internal and external controls. While internal controls are self-imposed, the external controls are in the form of legislative, judicial and external audit controls over administration.

Characteristics of Public Administration

a. It is concerned with implementing government policies and programmes.

b. It delivers various services various services to the public.

c. It has a system of rules and regulations, laws, procedures, policies and hierarchical structures.

d. It covers all the three branches of government- namely, the Legislature, the Executive and the Judiciary.

e. It manages and coordinates all the activities of the government at all levels.

f. It is governed by the principles of accountability, neutrality, transparency (ketelusan) , impartiality, anonymity and ethical

responsibility.

g. It is funded by the government every to carry out all activities of the government. Its yearly allocations are approved by the

Silverlight 5.1 mac download. legislature.

h. It is the action part of government- i.e. it is involved in decision-making, delivering services, managing financial and human

resources to achieve the objectives of the government.

i. The personnel are recruited and promoted on the basis of merit and seniority.

j. It is service-oriented.

k. It is an instrument of social change and economic development.

l. It is under the control of the political executive.

Private Versus Private (Business) Administration

Similarities (Persamaan)

Some important similarities between public and private administration may be noted as follows:

a. Both public and private administration are practical and provide people such common services as public utilities, social services and scientific and technical services.

b. They both use the same management processes, such as planning, organizing, decision-making and problem-solving, leading, controlling and so on.

c. They make use of certain common skills such as account-keeping, records-maintaining, compiling statistics and analysing them and auditing.

d. The element of hierarchically-arranged bureaucracy is found in both public and business organizations.

Differences (Perbezaan)

Despite the foregoing similarities, there are significant differences between public and private administration. These may be stated as follows:

a. Public administration is service-oriented whereas business administration is profit-driven. The various government departments and other public agencies provide various services to the people regardless of financial profit; its purpose is to promote the welfare of the people. By contrast, the major aim of business administration is to make profits for the owners of the business.

b. Many of the services provided by public administration are monopolistic (bersifat monopoli). For example, law-making; managing public utilities, maintaining army, etc. In these and many other public activities, the government has no real competition. On the contrary (sebaliknya), in most industries private business firms cannot escape competition. A business firm has to compete with (bersaing dengan) other firms producing similar products or substitutes.

c. The performance or achievements of public administration cannot be measured on monetary terms or by profit criteria. The services provided by the public agencies are aimed at promoting the welfare and well-being of the people. Therefore, the evaluation of such social services in relation to the costs incurred on them is difficult. But, in the case of business administration, a firm's performance can be measured easily by the profits earned or loss incurred (kerugian yang dialami) by it.

d. The public administrator is required to observe the principle of equality and impartiality in his dealings with the public. He cannot show any discrimination against any person. The business administrator, on the other hand, is not under any legal obligation to maintain consistency of treatment in his dealings with the people. It may be poor business sense if the small and the large customers are treated alike.

e. Public administration operates within the legal framework. The activities of public administrators are governed by strict laws, rules and regulations. Public administrators cannot carry our activities which are not authorized by law. In other words, they operate under legal restraints. By contrast, business administration is relatively free from such legal constraints. The business executives are generally free to select and implement those activities that bring more profits for their organization.

f. Public administration is both complex and large-scale administration. No private company can equal its size and diversity (kepelbagaian) of its activities. Government employs millions of people. Its customers are the people themselves who are both tax-payers and beneficiaries (yang mendapat manfaat) of public services. On the other hand, even a large private firm has a very limited public - the suppliers of material and equipment and the buyers of its products. Its employees are also limited in number. The scope of the activities of the government is more comprehensive and diverse than those of private business organisations.

g. Public administration is political while business administration is non-political. Public administration functions not only under political direction but also according to the directions given by the legislature and elected political leaders. On the contrary, no business firm functions under political control or direction. A business firm largely functions under the influence of market conditions.

Role of Public Administration in the Modern State

(i) An instrument for providing services

Public administration is mainly concerned with the delivery of various services to the public. It protects the life and property of the people by maintaining internal security and order. It defends the nation against external aggression. It provides a number of services to the people (such as health care, education, welfare benefits, social security, housing, public utilities, etc). The various services provided by public administration affect the life of every citizen from the cradle to the grave. In fact, it is not possible for us to enjoy the various services of the government if there is no public administration.

(ii) An instrument for implementing public policies

Modern governments formulate and adopt several policies and laws. But these policies and laws are merely printed papers. It is public administration that translates these paper declarations and intentions into reality. Thus, it converts words into action, form into substance. Be implementing these laws and policies, it delivers promised benefits to the people and regulates their behaviour.

(iii) A stabilising force in society

Public administration maintains social unity and harmony and the stability of social institutions by solving social problems. It provides an element of continuity (kesinambungan) when governments change often in a country. Governments may come and governments may go, but administration goes on forever. It survives even revolutions. In any state the bureaucracy carries on with the government even though the rulers change every now and then. In our country, the administrative organization that was developed by the British before independence has continued even after independence, with some changes.

(iv) An instrument of social change and economic development.

Public administration acts as an instrument of social change and economic development. The role of public administration as a change agent is particularly important in developing nations. The immediate tasks of public administrators are to eliminate poverty, unemployment and great disparities of wealth and achieve economic growth and equitable distribution of wealth. They have to work hard to implement industrialization and modernization programmes and resolve problems faced by the people. To achieve economic prosperity and realise the social welfare goals they have resorted to economic planning. All these have placed challenging tasks on public administration. Public bureaucracies in the developing nations must be competent and free from corruption in order to meet the challenges of economic development and to effect social change. They must be both task-oriented and goal-oriented. Only then they can bring about economic transformation.

Reasons for the growing importance of public administration

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(a) Scientific and Technological Developments

The impact of scientific discoveries, inventions and advances in information and communication technology on public administration is very great. These developments have led to revolutionary changes in many fields, such as transportation, communication, agriculture, trade, etc. these in turn have made 'big government' possible. 'Big government' means vast increase in the scope of public administration. in other words, the explosion of science and technology has placed new and heavy responsibilities and challenges on public administration.

(b) Economic Planning

Another factor that accounts for the growing importance of public administration is the concept of planning introduced by modern governments throughout the world. To spur economic growth, they have undertaken several transformation programmes. It is the public administrators who formulate long-term and perspective development plans and programmes and implement them. This is so because the administrators have the necessary skills, experience and expertise for plan formulation. These responsibilities have widened the scope of public administration.

(c) Concept of Welfare State

A Welfare State is a social service state. it is a positive state which takes the responsibility to provide conditions of good life for all citizens. It is concerned with the welfare of the citizens 'from the womb to the tomb.' The ever-increasing demands on public administration for more and more services provides challenges to public administrators to be responsive to the needs of the people in an effective manner. They plan and implement protective, regulatory, economic, social welfare and nation-building activities. in other words, the positive welfare state acts as a protector, a dispenser of social services, a manager of key industries and a controller and regulator of private economic activities in the interest of socio-economic justice. This change in the political philosophy of the state has greatly increased the role and significance (kepentingan) of public administration.

(d) Population Growth

The enormous increase in the population of most countries has also led to the increasing importance of public administration. Population growth has complicated the problem providing necessities of life such as food, housing and welfare services. Population explosion particularly in urban areas has posed acute social and economic problems, such as congestion, squatters, lack of housing, transportation problem, increasing crime rates and so on. All these problems created by the growth of population have to be tackled by pubic administrators.

Politics/ Policy - Administration Dichotomy

The early study of public administration in the USA towards the end of the nineteenth century was based on the politics/policy - administration dichotomy theory. ('Dichotomy' means 'Separation (pemisahan) or division into two.') According to this theory, policy-making is the business of politics and policy-implementation is the business of administration. While the elected legislators represent politics, the politically- neutral /non-political bureaucrats (civil servants) represent administration. The theory was developed on the basis of the functional distinction between 'political' activity and 'administrative' activity in public administration. It was also largely influenced by the separation of powers enshrined (termaktub) in the American Constitution. Another reason for the development of this theory was the concern of the early writers to keep politics out of administration and to develop the theory of administration on scientific lines.

The beginnings of the politics-administration dichotomy theory could be traced back to the famous essay, 'The study of Administration' (1887) written by Woodrow Wilson, the father or founder of the discipline of public administration. In his essay, the US scholar and statesman, stressed the need for developing an administrative system 'removed from the hurry and strife of politics.' To quote his words: '.... Administration lies outside the proper sphere of politics. Administrative questions are not political questions... The field of administration is a field of business.' He suggested that there is a clear difference between 'administration and politics' ; they are not the same.

However, it was Prof. Frank J. Goodnow who is associated with the theory of 'Politics-Administration Dichotomy.' In his book, 'Politics and Administration' (1990), Goodnow supported the view of Woodrow Wilson and elaborated on the distinction (perbezaan) between politics and administration. According to him, 'Politics has to do with policies or expressions of the state will (kehendak negara), while administration has to do with the execution of these policies.' In other words, politics is about policy-making and administration concerns policy-execution. In short, policy-making is the business of politics and policy implementation is the business of administration. This means that administration has no role to play in policy-making, and is limited to only policy execution. Elected lawmakers represent politics and politically-neutral bureaucrats and technocrats represent administration.

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This theory has been rejected by most scholars (para sarjana). It is no longer valid (sah). Scholars like Appleby, Simon and Waldo are of the view that there is no clear separation between politics and administration. Public administration is policy-making and is part of the political process. In other words, public administration contributes to both the formulation and execution of policies. We can say that in the modern world public administrators, particularly the senior officers, play an important role in the policy-making process. they identify problems and issues affecting the nation, carry out research and studies, find alternative strategies to resolve problems, initiate and prepare policies and laws for submission to the political executive for consideration. They also advise the political executive on national issues and policies.

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